Human Motivation Essay Example for Free

Human Motivation Essay

Examples Of Acute Injuries Health And Social Care Essay

Examples Of Acute Injuries Health And Social Care Essay To be fit and healthy it is important that you exercise, however, exercise too much and you could injure yourself. This can be caused by; An accident while training Insufficient equipment Pushing yourself too hard Not warming up properly Sports injuries can be classed into two categories; Acute injury Overuse injury An acute injury is on in which there is rapid onset of pain is resulting from an incident that has been traumatic for example, an injury. It is normally impact on a specific part of the body. Examples of acute injuries are; Sprains are injuries to ligaments by stretching them too far or by being torn. Ligaments are fibrous tissue which holds bones together as well as to keep your body in position preventing any unwanted movements. Examples of ligaments are; the calcaneoifbular ligament in the ankle which is the damaged ligament in the picture on the right. A sprain is an injury to a muscle or to a tendon. Muscles move your skeleton and this in turn pulls on a tendon which is connected to a bone. Both can be stretched but if they are stretched to far it can cause a tear in it. A contusion or bruise in common terms, is one of the most common sports injuries. These occur when a blood vessel underneath the skin ruptures due to compressive force to a muscle. Blood then leaks into the dermis layer of the skin, causing discoloration. This can also occur to organs. Dislocation is the separation of two bones at their meeting joint due to sudden force to the joint; this is clearly shown by the picture on the left. Therefore, the bone is no longer in its normal position. Dislocation can cause damage to the tissues surrounding the bone as well as any ligaments attached to the bone. Damage can also be done to the blood vessels and nerves. A fracture is a condition where the bone has broken or when there is a crack present in the bone. These occur due to high force or stress on the bone. Fractures can occur in any bone in the human body, however, bones can normally withstand most impacts and it is only if the force is too much it fractures. There are several different classes which fractures can be classed into; all are identified on the right. Closed/Simple fracture is when the bone is only damaged and there has been no damage done to the tissue or skin surrounding the bone. Compound/Open fracture is when the skin or tissue surrounding the fracture has been damaged. There is a higher risk of infection with this type due to the damage to the skin. Overuse injuries are those that are caused by recurring actions which damage tendons, ligaments, muscles and tissues in the same place over a period of time. Common overuse injuries are; Tennis elbow is due to injury of both the muscle and tendon on the outside of the radius and ulna, or more specifically the lateral epicondyle. It is caused my overuse of the forearm muscles resulting in pain. It is most common in tennis players; however, you do not need to be a tennis play to get this. Golfers elbow is a similar condition to tennis elbow, only this condition affects the muscle and tendons on the inside of the arm. Iliotibial band syndrome (ITBS) is caused by repetitive trauma to the Iliotibial band which is present in legs and runs along the outside of the thigh which keeps the knee in place as it flexes and extends. ITBS is the overuse of this band resulting in pain specifically during running and inflammation of the iliotibial band. A Shin splint occur when there is a recurring and a large amount of exercise being done. This puts large amounts of pressure onto the leg which can cause injury to the bone and tissue that surrounds it. Shin splints can also be where small tears develop in the interosseous membrane in the leg or tiny fractures develop on the surface of the tibia. Sports injuries are very common. One of which is a broken leg, this happened to American football wide receiver Tyrone Prothro who played for the University of Alabama between 2003 and 2005. On 1st October 2005, during a game versus the Florida Gators, Prothro went for a touchdown pass and got hit in the air and the way he landed on the ground he fractured both the tibia and fibula. Since the leg is deformed, this would be classed as a severe tibia and fibula fracture resulting in the inability to stand and walk as well as weakness in both the leg and foot. Damage was more than likely done to the surrounding tissue, nerves and blood vessels. First aid First aid is very important when it comes to an injured person. There are a number of rules in which you can follow; DR ABC is a mnemonic which is used soon after someone got injured; Danger Check the area and make sure you and the people around you are safe, especially the injured person. Response Can the injured person hear you? Can they open and close their eyes? Any movements? Response to touch? Airway Is there a blockage in the throat or have they swallowed their tongue? Is the head in a suitable position to allow breathing? Care should be taken not to make anything worse but the airway must be cleared if it is blocked. Breathing Can the injured person breathe clearly? Circulation Is there a pulse? Is the pulse weak / strong / racing R.I.C.E is another mnemonic that is used for tissue injuries; Rest This is important for repairing the body as without it more strain would be placed on the injured area leading to more injury. Ice Ice is perfect for reducing inflammation and any pain caused. It is recommended that you ice for 20 minutes and then no ice for 20 minutes. This can reduce the chance of getting frostbite, as well as wrapping the ice in a towel before placing it on the injured area. If you use the ice for too long, this can prolong the repairing time as it will restrict the blood flow to the area, which can reduce the nutrients getting the tissues of the injured area. Compression Compression is used to reduce the swelling that is from inflammation but everyone does get some swelling. For this an elastic bandage is better as it does not restrict the blood flow as is not to be too tight. Elevation ­ Elevation is good at reducing swelling by the higher amount of blood which returns to the systemic circulation. This break is easy to diagnose by the use of modern imaging techniques; X-rays CT scan MRI scan Bone scan Extremity ultrasound However, in Tyrone Prothro circumstances, he was given an X-ray as this was the fastest technique to use and is the least expensive. X-rays are high photon energy electromagnetic radiation which can be used in both diagnosis and therapy. As the rays pass thought the body, the photons present in your body are absorbed at different rates; this is what produces the image. The materials in your body which are dense, like bone, show up as white areas on the image. The parts of your body which are made of softer material, like muscles and organs, show up as darker areas. X-rays can be dangerous if the does given is too much for the body, however, medical x-rays are normally are a very small dose level, meaning the chance of radiation damage to your body is small. Due to the way in which Tyrone Prothro fractured his tibia and fibula, surgery had to be the option due to being the quickest option as without it, it would take years to heal or might never heal and will constantly be in pain. He had to get three separate surgeries due to the damage done to the tissue, nerve and blood vessel damage. The doctors put an intramedullary rod in his leg which will align the leg and help to fix the fracture. The IM rod was inserted into the interior of the bones, where the bone marrow is present. This is the best way to help heal the broken tibia and fibula as it does not support the bone; instead it shares the load with the bone. Rehabilitation of the broken tibia and fibula would be used to restore the function of the limb, as best as possible and to reduce the discomfort the patient is in. The patient may need the use of crutches, depending on the weight bearing position. The doctor may also decide if Tyrone would need the use of an orthopaedic cast, which means the leg would be covered by plaster to create a shell type casing. This is to reduce the movement the injured limb to do which will decrease the healing time. Once the cast has been removed, the patient will have to visit a physiotherapist to regain strength and range of motion in the leg. However, it will never be the same as what he had before the injury. Both the tibia and fibula may start to heal within 6 to 16 weeks of the injury, but the capability of the bone to sustain a heavy load could take up to a year, meaning the injured may be is some sort of discomfort until then. REHABILITATION VISITS Non-surgical Specialist Fracture, Tibia or Fibula Physical Therapist Up to 20 visits within 8 weeks Surgical Specialist Fracture, Tibia or Fibula Physical Therapist Up to 16 visits within 8 weeks http://www.mdguidelines.com/fracture-tibia-or-fibula/rehabilitation The table is how often you would have to visit a physiotherapist if you had a broken tibia and fibula. Or Tyrone Prothro, surgery was the option, meaning once he was released from hospital and ready, he would have to visit the physiotherapist 16 times within the space of 8 weeks, means 2 times a week. Due to the damage that was done and his leg never fully recovering, meaning he was advised never to play football again, his career finished. Prevention of sports injuries There are six steps that are highly important to reduce the risk of sports injuries; Warm up Do not over do it Stay hydrated Using the right technique Use of the proper equipment Cool down Sports occupation The sports profession that I have chosen to examine in this unit is physiotherapy. Physiotherapy helps to restore the function and movement in any part of the body where the human has been effect by a disability, illness or injury. This is normally done through movement, exercise and education. The American Board of Physical Therapy Specialties (ABPTS), state that there are 8 credible types of physiotherapy; Sports This has to be the most common type of physiotherapy, being used every day. It is the management of injuries for all types of athletes, amateur to Olympian. It involves the treatment and healing of injuries. Orthopedic This type helps to identify and care for injuries or disorders of the musculoskeletal system. Pediatric This type is all about improving coordination and balance within a human as well as their motor skills. It can also be used to focus on strength and endurance. Humans with conditions such as, spina bifida and cerebral palsy. Normally this is used on children and adolescents. Cardiovascular and Pulmonary This is for the treatment of humans with cardiovascular and pulmonary disorders, as well as those who have had cardiac or pulmonary surgery such as, bypass surgery. This is used in humans with the following disorders; pulmonary fibrosis, CORD (Chronic Obstructive Respiratory Disease), heart attacks. Geriatric This type of physiotherapy is for the vast amount of conditions that affect humans as they grow old and therefore would only be practiced on the elderly. A few examples of the conditions are as follows; Alzheimers disease, cancer, arthritis and osteoporosis. Neurological This type is practiced on those with a neurological disorder such as, Alzheimers disease, cerebral palsy, Parkinsons disease and motor neurone disease Clinical electrophysiology This type normally is used with electrophysiological evaluation where an EMG (electromyography) is used. Integumentary This is used as a treatment for skin and organ conditions like burns and wounds. University level Physiotherapy is degree based career, meaning you have to go through university if you wish to become a physiotherapist. University of Ulster is the only university in Northern Ireland to offer a degree, specifically, a BSc Hons in physiotherapy. The university states that applicants must; Hold a GCSE pass in English Language at Grade C or above (or equivalent).   You must also have obtained a GCSE pass in Mathematics at grade C or above (or equivalent). A level Grades BBB to include one science subject from Biology, Chemistry, Maths, Physics or Double Award Applied Science  (with a BB in Double Award Applied Science). Irish Leaving Certificate B2B2B3B3B3 at higher level to include two subjects from Maths, Physics, Biology or Chemistry. English and Maths Grade D at Higher Level or Grade C at Ordinary Level. BTEC National Diploma Successful completion of a science related BTEC National Diploma with a DDM profile.   Pass with overall average of 70 71% to include 70% in each final year module. Final year modules must include 2 from the following:- Maths (with maths to be presented at level 3), Biology, Physics, Chemistry. Applicants must also sit the Health Professions Admissions Test results in a satisfactory performance in the HPAT. As well as testing all candidates are required to undergo a medical examination and criminal records check (AccessNI). http://prospectus.ulster.ac.uk/course/?id=9773 BSc Hons in Physiotherapy is a three year course results in peoples meeting the demand of physiotherapists in the current health care system, the NHS or via private practices. In each of the three years you study; Year 1 Development of professional identity and professionalism Knowledge and Skills for Professional Practice, and Communication and Psychology for the Health Sciences. An understanding of core subjects: Physiology and, Structure, Function and Assessment of the Human Body. Specific skills are taught with regard to cardio-respiratory, electrotherapy, walking rehabilitation and therapeutic exercise. Students undertake a one week orientation and a six week clinical placement. Year 2 Neurological rehabilitation. Spinal dysfunction and rehabilitation. Musculoskeletal. Pediatrics. Oncology. Amputation rehabilitation. Students undertake two six week clinical placements. Year 3 Cardio-respiratory and professional issues develop awareness of the role of the physiotherapist within the multidisciplinary team and in a changing clinical environment. Students undertake an investigative project or dissertation Students undertake two six week clinical placements. http://prospectus.ulster.ac.uk/course/?id=9773 Professional Organisations Once you have completed the course, you leave with a BSc (Bachelor of Science) in Physiotherapy and are therefore eligible for registration with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), this was set up with the Health Service reform 2002 and membership of the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (CSP). As a physiotherapy student at the University of Ulster, they recommend that you join CSP as soon as possible with membership being a one off payment. Personal Qualities As a physiotherapist it is important that they are fit and healthy, to set an example to your clients. Good communication and social skills are key to ensure a good relationship between the therapist and the patient. Tolerance and patience is an important quality, due to this being a very hand on career. Careers Beyond obtaining the BSc in physiotherapy, you can either go into a career or do a postgraduate degree, MSc which is a Master of Science. The University of Ulster offers Physiotherapy at MSc level. If one does not want to go on to do a postgraduate degree then it is possible to go into the world of work, the possibilities are endless with physiotherapy due to the vast amounts of sports played in the world or any other types of physiotherapy (ABPTS) are needed on a daily basis. NHS vs. Private Care There are various jobs available on the NHS (National Health Service) and private practitioners, both of which are highly regarded. With the NHS based jobs, they would be working in a hospital environment and are needed in most of the departments; Outpatients Intensive care Womens health Care of the elderly Stroke patients Orthopedics Mental illness Learning difficulties Occupational health Terminally ill Pediatrics This means that they will constantly be on the clocked and needed for various things. Physiotherapists do not just work in the hospital surrounding; they would work in various environments; Industry Special schools The private sector (for example, private practice) Education Leisure sport For physiotherapists that are in the private sector would work in the same principles as those on the NHS, however, the private section physios will have to be paid for. There are three bands for physiotherapists on the NHS, all have a different salary;  £21,176  £27,534 (band 5)  £25,472  £34,189 for specialist physiotherapists (band 6)  £30,460  £40,157 for advanced physiotherapists (band 7) The physiotherapists that work in the private sector will generally have the same salary as those on the NHS. Medical Physics Roger Muncaster http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/sports-injuries/Pages/Introduction.aspx http://www.sportsmd.com/sportsmd_articles/id/347.aspx http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/glossary/g/acute_def.htm http://orthopedics.about.com/cs/sprainsstrains/a/sprain.htm http://www.howtotreatasprainedankle.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/sprained-ankle-pic.jpg http://www.examples10.com/e/ligaments/ http://www.umm.edu/graphics/images/en/19618.jpg http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/88153-overview http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=135557ref=132720 http://images.emedicinehealth.com/images/healthwise/medical/hw/n5550698.jpg http://www.empowher.com/files/ebsco/images/si55550720.jpg http://www.chanorthopaedics.com.sg/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/type-of-fracture.gif http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/173312.php http://www.nsmi.org.uk/articles/overuse-injuries.html http://img.webmd.boots.com/dtmcms/live/webmd_uk/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_and_medical_reference/joints_bones_and_muscles/arthritis_tennis_elbow.jpg http://www.webmd.boots.com/osteoarthritis/guide/tennis-elbow http://davidrobertsphysio.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/golferselbow.gif http://www.sdri.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ITBS1-201300.jpg http://www.medicinenet.com/iliotibial_band_syndrome/article.htm http://0.tqn.com/f/p/440/graphics/images/en/19482.jpg http://sportsmedicine.about.com/b/2007/08/21/shin-splints.htm http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/shin-splints/Pages/Introduction.aspx http://blog.al.com/rapsheet/2009/04/medium_t1_proth_si.jpg http://www.manlyweb.com/sports/injuries/prothro.htm http://medical.cdn.patient.co.uk/images/i77_l.jpg http://www.freemd.com/tibia-fracture/overview.htm http://image.sciencesource.com/photos/preview/7w/7w2937.jpg http://www.teachpe.com/multi/dr_abc.htm http://www.freemd.com/tibia-fracture/evaluation.htm http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/rehab/a/rice.htm http://www.body-dynamics.co.uk/rice.html http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/x-ray/pages/introduction.aspx http://www.tyroneprothro.com/news.htm http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/figures/A00525F02.jpg http://orthopedics.about.com/cs/brokenbones/g/imrod.htm http://www.mdguidelines.com/fracture-tibia-or-fibula/rehabilitation http://www.louisbarnett.com/leg-cast.jpg http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/injuryprevention/a/aa101801a.htm http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Sports-injuries/Pages/Prevention.aspx

Frankenstein :: essays research papers

1. List the title and author of the work you read.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frankenstein by Mary Shelley 2. Briefly describe the plot (action) of the work. What happens?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Robert Walton (the first narrator) finds Victor Frankenstein adrift in the Arctic. After a week’s recovery Frankenstein tells his story. As Victor was growing up he had always been interested in alchemy and pseudo-sciences. He hoped to one day to be able overcome death and decay. Victor learned how to create life in the laboratory and collected parts from cadavers to create his creature. After giving his creation life, he was horrified and fled. He was hidden away for two years, then received a letter telling of his little brother’s death. He suspected the creature, but the police suspected a female friend of his family’s and hanged her. One day the being found Victor and told him of his survival and his knowledge. He requested Victor make him a companion and in return they would flee away never to be seen again. He eventually agrees to make the â€Å"bride,† but after much pondering destroys all the work he had done. The â€Å"monster † curses Frakenstein assuring revenge on his wedding night. Later another of his friends turns up dead. Victor still made plans to marry Elizabeth with whom he was raised. On their wedding night she is strangled by the monster. He follows the monster pledging to destroy it. The story leads to where he is taken aboard the ship. Soon after the story Victor dies. The monster s discovered on board and announces his plans to kill himself. 3. How would you describe the author’s style? Examine the way the author writes, considering word choice, point of view, structure, special techniques (i.e., symbolism).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I really liked the way Shelley told the story from different points of view. She made the story whole by telling what Victor thought and what the creature thought. I also liked the way she didn’t just dive right into the central story, but laid out an outer frame. Shelley tries to make an easily read story by telling it from all angles and makes it a little different with the story inside of the story. 4. Was this an easy work to read? Why or why not?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe it was easily read. There was no overly difficult language. If you did have to pause in the middle of the story it was easily picked up again without rereading sections a couple times.

Varying Definitions of Community Essays -- Definition Essays

Varying Definitions of Community Being enrolled here at State University, one is a part of a community, a type of give and take community between both the elite student and knowledgeable professor.   The students enroll in this community by choice, and all of them share a common goal of success and wanting to grow and prosper through the community experience.   Today's version of the word community differs from past years and probably from how the word will evolve in the future.   In the examining of different dictionaries on the word â€Å"community† one can find that the meanings are very similar, yet they also have some slight variations. The community here at Michigan State University is a good example of the word community.   This example is especially prevalent in this definition of the word from The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary where it states a community being "a body of persons of common and especially professional interests scattered through a larger society <the academic community>".   This is exactly the type of community we have here at MSU.   In looking at the numerous definitions in The Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition, it was obvious in that all of the definitions re-ascertained the same type of meaning that was in BOLD text among all of the rest.   The overall put together definition from all of the definitions found in this particular source was described as a "social group with different members who dwell in the same place and share some sort of common ground" (Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition) this definition stands true to our Michigan State community.   The definiti on also takes on a surprisingly different meaning in some of the older reference sources.   Having never seen such a definition ... ... meaning still remains the same.   People talk about community and getting involved in the community all of the time.   The people talking always revert back to the basic definition, and that's usually what they're talking about†¦Getting involved, or just plain old talking about (good or bad) the group of people whom live in the same area as they do, who share some of the same common interests as they do and hopefully, in the end, are always trying to better it day by day. Works Cited *   "Community".   A Dictionary of American English.Volume I.Sir William A. Craigie.1897. *   "Community".   The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 11th edition. 14 Nov. 2004.http://www.m-w.com/. *   "Community".   Nouveau Dictionnaire Anglais-Francais. J. McLAUGHLIN. 1914 *   "Community".   The Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition.Volume III.J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner.1989.

Cognitive Artifacts & Windows 95 :: essays research papers

Cognitive Artifacts & Windows 95 The article on Cognitive Artifacts by David A. Norman deals with the theories and principles of artifacts as they relate to the user during execution and completion of tasks. These principles and theories that Norman speaks about may be applied to any graphical user interface, however I have chosen to relate the article to the interface known as Windows 95. Within Windows 95, Microsoft has included a little tool called the wizard that guides us through the steps involved in setting up certain applications. This wizard is a very helpful tool to the non experienced computer user, in the way that it acts like a to-do list. The wizard takes a complex task and breaks it into discrete pieces by asking questions and responding to those questions based on the answers. Using Norman's theories on system view and the personal view of artifacts, we see that the system views the wizard as an enhancement. For example, we wanted to set up the Internet explorer, you click on the icon answer the wizard's questions and the computer performs the work. Making sure everything is setup properly without the errors that could occur in configuring the task yourself. The wizard performs all the functions on its little to-do list without having the user worrying about whether he/she remembered to include all the commands. On the side of personal views the user may see the wizard as a new task to learn but in general it is simpler than having to configure the application yourself and making an error, that could cause disaster to your system. The wizard also prevents the user from having to deal with all the internal representation of the application like typing in command lines in the system editor. Within Windows 95 most of the representation is internal therefore we need a way to transform it to surface representation so it is accessible to the user. According to Norman's article there are "three essential ingredients in representational systems. These being the world which is to be represented, the set of symbols representing the world, and an interpreter." This is done in Windows by icons on the desktop and on the start menu. The world we are trying to represent to the user is the application, which can be represented by a symbol which is the icon. These icons on the desktop and on the start menu are the surface representations the user sees when he goes to access the application not all the files used to create it or used in conjunction with the applications

Firm value and share price strategy Essay

BAE facing challenges on Intensive competition and budget defence cuts by their major customers should focus on increasing shareholders’ equity by reduction of costs, adapting capabilities to the changing priorities of their customers and improve their Programme execution. Directors should monitor working capital expenditures to ensure that unnecessary further debt would be incurred that inevitably has an effect on book values. Higher book values (stockholders’ equity) act as a positive in a buyer’s assessment of purchase price, to some extent providing at least the illusion of a floor in value (Nation’s Business 2006). 4) Recommendations dealing with corporate governance Currently BAE Systems has faced problems facing its shareholders due to its criticism received on corporate governance and ethical conduct (Daily Mail 2010). As a recommendation, BAE should follow the financial reporting council (FRC) proposition on putting greater emphasis on the principles of UK’s corporate governance code, and apply the annual shareholder re-election. This would have a significant impact a wider engagement for the company’s shareholders. A necessary midyear review process should be conducted by an external facilitator to help in the evaluation process, metrics such as board effectiveness by dealing with issues in a timely manner should be considered. Having a wide and complex set of operations, information dissemination in a timely manner is very important to ensure appropriate decisions. Key performance Indicators should be the guideline across all the managing directors and their performance will be evaluated by comparison of their actual results from targets. 5) Critical evaluation of the model used Using financial models can provide actual figures for projection analysis that can create awareness for a company’s board of directors (Palmgren 1999). The Residual Income Model can be used as a valuation of the firm, based on its total book value and residual income (Financial Education 2010). During recent years it has been used as the primary valuation method due to its measurement of internal corporate performance and feasible estimation of the intrinsic value of common stock. The difference between a residual income and traditional financial statements are for the latter its purpose of preparation is to reflect earnings available to its owners, charges incurred for equity capital and dividends are not included, while the former adds the component of cost of equity capital for its calculation (Dodd 2001). Another limitation of the traditional income model is that it may not actually reflect the value of certain business activities. Such in our case with BAE system’s numerous acquisitions, on its accounting model it seems that BAE have significantly improved profitability on its strategies, however this could not be all false, but using the residual income approach some of the acquisitions doesn’t have the kind of effect, due again to the cost of equity capital (Bild, Guest,Cosh and Runsten 2002). 6) Conclusion BAE Systems being in an industry where intense competition exists should apply necessary strategies to ensure profitability in the coming years both for continuous operation and maximizing shareholders equity. Their current strategies for acquisition may have benefited them but the cost of violation of regulation procedures have definitely impacted over all operations. Using financial models like the residual income model, the board of directors can see, what would happen if they continue with their current policies on corporate strategy and governance, it has shown a negative impact on present firm’s value, thus the recommendation for consideration of a new effective strategy to be implemented across the board. List of References BAE Systems (2010) Annual Report 2009.[PDF] Available from < http://bae-systems-investor- relations-2009. production. investis. com/results-reports-and-presentations. aspx> [09 May 2010]. Brylawski, M. (1995). Developing a circumstance-based Innovation Strategy for a Midsized Aerospace Manufacturer:Fostering Entreprenuership, Opening Boundaries and Seeding Disruption. [PDF] Available from . [09 May 2010]. Bild, M. , Guest,P. , Cosh, A. , and Runsten, M. (2002). Do takeovers create value? A residual income approach on UK data. [PDF] Daily Mail (2010). BAE flies into storm with shareholders. Available from . [09 May 2010]. Dodd, J. (2001). Operating income, residual income and EVA: Which metric is more value relevant. Journal of Managerial Issues. Financial Education (2010). The Residual Income Valuation Model. Available from < http://financial-education. com/2007/10/30/the-residual-income-valuation-model/> [09 May 2010]. Financial Times (2010). FT Market Data BAE Systems. Available from < http://markets. ft. com/ft/tearsheets/analysis. asp? s=BA.:LSE>. [09 May 2010]. Nation’s Business (1996). 10 ways to increase your firm’s value – Net Worth. Available from < http://findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_m1154/is_n11_v84/ai_18818240/>. [09 May 2010]. Palmgren, B. (1999). The Need for Financial Models. Available from < http://www. ercim. eu/publication/Ercim_News/enw38/palmgren. html>. [09 May 2010]. Smith, T & Frost,L. (2008). BAE Buys Tenix Defence to Double Sales in Australia. [Online] Available from [09 May 2010]. Wachman, R. (2010). BAE Systems hit by defence cuts. Available from < http://www. guardian. co. uk/business/2010/mar/22/bae-systems-defence-spending-cuts> [09 May 2010]. West, K (2010). BAE goes top of the global arms league. [Online] Available from [09 May 2010]. Appendices Appendix 1 Five year Summary Income Statement of BAE Systems. Source: retrieved 9 May 2010 Extract from Annual Report 2009 http://bae-systems-investor-relations-2009. production. investis. com/financial-information/five-year-summary. aspx Appendix 2 Group Income Statement. Source: Extract from Annual Report 2009 for the year ended 31 December. Retrieved 10 May 2010 http://bae-systems-investor-relations-2009. production. investis. com/financial-information/group-income-statement. aspx Notes 2009 ?m Total 2009 ?m 2008 ?m Total 2008 ?m Continuing operations Combined sales of Group and equity accounted investments 3 22,415 18,543 Less: share of sales of equity accounted investments 3 (2,041) (1,872) Revenue 3 20,374 16,671 Operating costs 4 (20,060) (15,386) Other income 5 465 415 Group operating profit excluding amortisation and impairment of intangible assets 2,038 2,003. Amortisation 11 (286) (247) Impairment 11 (973) (56) Group operating profit 779 1,700 Share of results of equity accounted investments excluding finance costs and taxation expense 233 132 Financial (expense)/income of equity accounted investments 6 (7) 44 Taxation expense of equity accounted investments (23) (37) Share of results of equity accounted investments 14 203 139 Goodwill impairment in respect of equity accounted investments 14 – (121) Contribution from equity accounted investments 203 18 EBITA1 excluding non-recurring items 2,220 1,897 Profit on disposal of businesses2 9. 68 238 Pension curtailment gains2 261 – Regulatory penalties3 (278) – EBITA1 2,271 2,135 Amortisation (286) (247) Impairments (973) (177) Financial (expense)/income of equity accounted investments 6 (7) 44 Taxation expense of equity accounted investments (23) (37) Operating profit 3 982 1,718 Finance costs 6 Financial income 1,573 3,380 Financial expense (2,273) (2,727) (700) 653 Profit before taxation 282 2,371 Taxation expense 8 UK taxation (105) (351) Overseas taxation (222) (252) (327) (603) (Loss)/profit for the year (45) 1,768 Attributable to: BAE Systems shareholders (67) 1,745 Minority interests 22 23 (45) 1,768 (Loss)/earnings per share 10 Basic (loss)/earnings per share (1. 9)p 49. 6p Diluted (loss)/earnings per share (1. 9)p 49. 5p Appendix 3 Group Balance Sheet as at 31 December. Source: Extract from Annual Report 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2010 http://bae-systems-investor-relations-2009. production. investis. com/financial-information/balance-sheet. aspx Notes 2009 ?m 2008 Restated ?m Fixed assets Tangible assets 2 4 5 Investments in subsidiary undertakings 3 7,070 5,663 7,074 5,668 Current assets Debtors due within one year 4. 7,468 9,339 Debtors due after one year 4 14 3 Other financial assets due within one year 262 703 Other financial assets due after one year 5 179 478 Cash at bank and in hand 5 2,804 1,988 10,725 12,511 Liabilities falling due within one year Loans and overdrafts 6 (37) (49) Creditors 7 (14,490) (12,873) Other financial liabilities 5 (255) (598) (14,782) (13,520) Net current liabilities (4,057) (1,009) Total assets less current liabilities 3,017 4,659 Liabilities falling due after one year Loans 6 (233) (258) Creditors 7 (3) (6) Other financial liabilities 5 (327) (574). (563) (838) Provisions for liabilities and charges 8 (61) (120) (2,393) (3,701) Capital and reserves Issued share capital 10 90 90 Share premium account 12 1,243 1,238 Statutory reserve 13 202 202 Other reserves 12 119 164 Profit and loss account 12 739 2,007 Equity shareholders’ funds 2,393 3,701 Appendix 4 Group Cash Flow for the year ended 31 December. Source: Extract from Annual Report 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2010 http://bae-systems-investor-relations-2009. production. investis. com/financial-information/cash-flow. aspx Notes 2009 ?m 2008 ?m (Loss)/profit for the year (45) 1,768. Taxation expense 327 603 Share of results of equity accounted investments 14 (203) (139) Net finance costs 700 (653) Depreciation, amortisation and impairment 1,600 755 Gain on disposal of property, plant and equipment 4, 5 (17) (33) Gain on disposal of investment property 5 – (5) Gain on disposal of businesses 5 (68) (238) Cost of equity–settled employee share schemes 52 51 Movements in provisions 52 (115) Decrease in liabilities for retirement benefit obligations (657) (272) Decrease/(increase) in working capital: Inventories 6 46 Trade and other receivables 52 (5). Trade and other payables 433 246 Cash inflow from operating activities 2,232 2,009 Interest paid (250) (249) Interest element of finance lease rental payments (2) (5) Taxation paid (350) (261) Net cash inflow from operating activities 1,630 1,494 Dividends received from equity accounted investments 14 77 89 Interest received 66 156 Purchases of property, plant and equipment (483) (520) Purchases of intangible assets (42) (32) Proceeds from sale of property, plant and equipment 36 44 Proceeds from sale of investment property – 5 Purchase of subsidiary undertakings 27, 29 (357) (1,078). Cash and cash equivalents acquired with subsidiary undertakings 27 33 2 Purchase of equity accounted investments 27 (1) (12) Proceeds from sale of subsidiary undertakings 9 2 131 Cash and cash equivalents disposed of with subsidiary undertakings – (60) Proceeds from sale of equity accounted investments 9 70 16 Net proceeds from (purchase)/sale of other deposits/securities (209) 164 Net cash outflow from investing activities (808) (1,095) Capital element of finance lease rental payments (13) (18) Proceeds from issue of share capital 5 16 Purchase of own shares (25) (43) Equity dividends paid 28. (534) (478) Dividends paid to minority interests (5) (11) Cash inflow/(outflow) from matured derivative financial instruments 36 (440) Cash (outflow)/inflow from movement in cash collateral (11) 106 Cash inflow from loans 920 – Cash outflow from repayment of loans (133) (306) Net cash inflow/(outflow) from financing activities 240 (1,174) Net increase/(decrease) in cash and cash equivalents 1,062 (775) Cash and cash equivalents at 1 January 2,605 3,046 Effect of foreign exchange rate changes on cash and cash equivalents 11 334 Cash and cash equivalents at 31 December 3,678 2,605.

Public administration Essay

‘Ethics’ is a difficult term to define. The meaning, nature and scope of ethics have expanded in the course of time. ‘Ethics’ is integral to public administration. In public administration, ethics focuses on how the public administrator should question and reflect in order to be able to act responsibly. We cannot simply bifurcate the two by saying that ethics deals with morals and values, while public administration is about actions and decisions. Administering accountability and ethics is a difficult task. The 1 levels of ethics in governance are dependent on the social, economic, political, cultural, legal-judicial and historical contexts of the country. These specific factors influence ethics in public administrative systems. This Unit will discuss the meaning, evolution, foci and concerns of ethics. It will bring out the different dimensions of ethics and their relevance for public administration. The significance of an ethical code for administrators will be analysed and the nature of work ethics will be discussed. This Unit will also examine the obstacles to ethical accountability. 21. 2 ETHICS: MEANING AND RELEVANCE ‘Ethics’ is a system of accepted beliefs, mores and values, which influence human behaviour. More specifically, it is a system based on morals. Thus, ethics is the study of what is morally right, and what is not. The Latin origin of the word ‘ethics’ is ethicus that means character. Since the early 17th century, ‘ethics’ has been accepted as the â€Å"Science of morals; the rules of conduct, the science of human duty. † Hence, in common parlance, ethics is treated as moral principles that govern a person’s or a group’s behaviour. It includes both the science of the good and the nature of the right. The ethical concerns of governance have been underscored widely in Indian scriptures and other treatises such as Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagvad Gita, Buddha Charita, Arthashastra, Panchatantra, Manusmriti, Kural, Shukra Niti, Kadambari, Raja Tarangani, and Hitopadesh. At the same time, one cannot ignore the maxims on ethical governance provided by the Chinese philosophers such as Lao Tse, Confucius and Mencius. In the Western philosophy, there are three eminent schools of ethics. The first, inspired by Aristotle, holds that virtues (such as justice, charity and generosity) are dispositions to act in ways that benefit the possessor of these virtues and the society of which he is a part. The second, subscribed to mainly by Immanual Kant, makes the concept of duty central to morality: human beings are bound, from a knowledge of their duty as rational beings, to obey the categorical imperative to respect other rational beings with whom they interact. The third is the Utilitarian viewpoint that asserts that the guiding principle of conduct should be the greatest happiness (or benefit) of the greatest number (Hobson, 2002). The Western thought is full of ethical guidelines to rulers, whether in a monarchy or a democracy. These concerns are found in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Penn, John Stuart Mill, Edmund Burke, and others. Rawl’s theory of justice revolves around the adaptation of two fundamental principles of justice, which would, in turn, guarantee a just and morally acceptable society. The first principle guarantees the right of each person to have the most extensive basic liberty compatible with liberty of others. The second principle states that social and economic positions are to be: (a) To everyone’s advantage, and (b) Open to all. A key issue for Rawls is to show how such principles would be universally adopted, and over here his work borders on general ethical issues. He introduces a theoretical ‘veil of ignorance’ in which all ‘players’ in the social game would be placed in a situation, which is called the ‘original position’. Having only a general knowledge about the facts of ‘life and society’ each player is to make a ‘rationally’ prudential choice concerning the kind of social institution they would enter into contract with. By denying the players any specific information about themselves it forces them to adopt a generalised point of view that bears a strong resemblance to the moral point of view. This view point revolves around moral conclusions can be reached without abandoning the prudential standpoint and posting a moral outlook merely by pursuing one’s own prudential reasoning under certain procedural bargaining. 2 The gist of wisdom on administrative ethics is that the public administrators are the â€Å"guardians† of the Administrative State. Hence, they are expected to honour public trust and not violate it. Two crucial questions raised in this context are â€Å"why should guardians be guarded? And â€Å"Who guards the guardian? † (Rosenbloom and Kravchuk, 2005). The administrators need to be guarded against their tendency to misconceive public interest, promote self-interest, indulge in corruption and cause subversion of national interest. And they need to be guarded by the external institutions such as the judiciary, legislature, political executive, media and civil society organisations. These various modes of control become instruments of accountability. 21. 3 EVOLUTION OF ETHICAL CONCERNS IN ADMINISTRATION It is essential to recognise that the discipline of Public Administration has been broadly influenced in the initial stages of its growth, by Political Science and the science of Management. While the philosophical premises of Public Administration were influenced primarily by Political Science, its technological facet was designed by Management Sciences. The early Political Science was taught as Moral Philosophy and Political Economy, while its current curriculum is the product of secular, practical, empirical and scientific tendencies of the past century. The American students of Political Science, in the early years of the last century, were dismayed at the inadequacies of the ethical approach in the Gilded Age. As a result of their interaction with the German universities and the influence on their thinking by scholars such as J. N Burgess, E. J. James, A. B Hart, A. L Lovell, and F. J Goodnow, they sought to recreate Political Science as a true science. They became increasingly interested in observing and analysing ‘actual governments’. Natural and Social Sciences substantially influenced their ideas and approaches. Later, Logical Positivism of the Austrian School influenced scholars such as Herbert Simon and thus there emerged a booming faith in developing a Science of Politics and a Science of Administration that would be able to `predict and control’ political and administrative life. As Dwight Waldo comments, the old belief that good government was the government of moral men was thus replaced by a morality that was irrelevant and that proper institutions and expert personnel were the determining factors in shaping good government. `The new amorality became almost a request for professional respect’. The eminence of Behaviouralism until the mid-1960s further marginalised the ethical issues in the study of Political Science and Public Administration. It was only after the advent of Post-behaviouralism in Political Science and of the accent on New Public Administration in Public Administration that the scientific methods of Behaviouralim and humanistic (read `ethical’) values struck a homogenous chord with administration and the dispute between facts and values was resolved substantially. The current discipline of public administration accords primacy to the `values’ of equity, justice, humanism, human rights, gender equality and compassion. The movement of Good Governance, initiated by the World Bank in 1992, lays stress, inter alia, on the ethical and moral conduct of administrators. While the New Public Management movement is more concerned with administrative effectiveness, the New Public Administration focuses on administrative ethics in its broader manifestation. Both the movements are complementary to each other. This complementarity of foci 3 is as truer today as it was a hundred years ago when the industrial world was experiencing the rise of Scientific Management amidst a strong acceptance of the notion of administrative responsibility. John Kennedy, during his Presidency (19611963) had averred: â€Å"No responsibility of government is more fundamental than the responsibility of maintaining the higher standards of ethical behaviour. The ideal-type construction of bureaucracy, propounded by Max Weber also highlighted an ethical imperative of bureaucratic behaviour. Weber (1947) observed: In the rational type, it is a matter of principle that the members of the administrative staff should be completely separated from ownership of the means of production and administration. Officials, employees and workers attached to the administrative staff do not themselves own the non-human means of production and administration†¦. These exists, furthermore, in principle complete separation of property belonging to the organisation, which is controlled within the sphere of office, and the personal property of the official, which is available for his own private uses†. Weber’s analysis underscores the need to prevent the misuse of an official position for personal gains. Although his ideal-type construct on bureaucracy is not empirical, yet it has an empirical flavour, for it appears to have taken into account the existential reality of bureaucratic behaviour. From a normative angle – knowing that Weber was not normative in his ideal type constructs – also, the message is clear: Don’t misuse official property for personal benefit. Most critics of real-world bureaucracies, including Harold Laski, Carl Friedrich, Victor Thompson and Warren Bennis, have criticised bureaucrats for violating the prescribed norms of moral conduct. Even Fred Riggs, while discussing the traits of a prismatic society like `formalism’ and ‘nepotism’ points out the yawning gap between the `ideal’ and the `real’ in administrative behaviour. The deviations from the norms and mores have been too glaring to be ignored. Immoral behaviour thus has become an integral component of `bureaupathology’ 21. 4 CONTEXT OF ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Ethics, whether in an entire society, or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced, during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors. Administrative ethics is no different. It is the product of several contextual structures and it never ceases to grow and change. Let us now look at some of these contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems: The Historical Context The history of a country marks a great influence on the ethical character of the governance system. The Spoils System in the USA during the initial phase of the American nation vitiated the ethical milieu of the American Public Administration. â€Å"To victor belong the spoils† asserted American President Jackson. Things would have continued the same way had not a disgruntled job seeker assassinated President Garfield in 1881. Garfield’s assassination spurred the process of civil service reforms in the USA, and the setting up of the US. Civil Service Commission in 1883 was the first major step in this direction. India has witnessed a long history of unethical practices in the governance system. Kautilya’s Arthashastra mentions a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of those times indulged themselves. The Mughal Empire and the Indian princely rule were also afflicted with the corrupt practices of the courtiers and 4 administrative functionaries, with ‘bakashish’ being one of the accepted means of selling and buying favours. The East India Company too had its share of employees who were criticised even by the British parliamentarians for being corrupt. The forces of probity and immorality co-exist in all phases of human history. Which forces are stronger depends upon the support these get from the prime actors of politico-administrative system. What is disturbing is that a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is likely to enhance the tolerance level for administrative immorality. In most developing nations having a colonial history, the chasm between the people and the government continues to be wide. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of the governance was not accepted willingly by a majority of population and therefore, true loyalty to the rulers was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced substantially in the transformed democratic regimes, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been total even in the new dispensation. Unfortunately, even the ruling elite does not seem to have imbibed the spirit of emotional unity with the citizens. The legacy of competitive collaboration between the people and the administrators continues to exist. The nature of this relationship has an adverse impact on ‘administrative ethics’. The Socio-cultural Context Values that permeate the social order in a society determine the nature of governance system. The Indian society today seems to prefer wealth to any other value. And in the process of generating wealth, the means-ends debate has been sidelined. Unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an equal respect. A quest for wealth in itself is not bad. In fact, it is a mark of civilisational progress. What is important is the means employed while being engaged in this quest. We seem to be living in an economic or commercial society, where uni-dimensional growth of individuals seem to be accepted and even valued, where ends have been subdued by means, and ideals have been submerged under the weight of more practical concerns of economic progress. Can we change this social order? Mahatma Gandhi very much wanted to transform the priority-order of the Indian society, but there were hardly any takers or backers of his radical thinking that was steeped in a strong moral order. To put it bluntly, ever since Gandhi passed away, there has been not a single strong voice in independent India challenging the supremacy of ‘teleology and unidimensionalism’. Neither have our family values questioned this unilinear growth of society nor has our educational system made serious efforts to inject morality into the impressionable minds of our youth. We have starkly failed on these fronts. The need is to evolve fresh perspectives on what kind of the Indians we wish to evolve and how? Till then, efforts will have to be focused on the non-social fronts. The issues of morality may or may not be rooted in the religious ethos of a society. Indian religious scriptures do not favour pursuit of wealth through foul means. Interestingly, Thiru Valluvar’s Kural, written two thousand years ago in Tamil Nadu, emphasises that earning wealth brings fame, respect and an opportunity to help and serve others, but it should be earned through right means only. Can this dictum form the basis of our socio-moral orientation? The level of integrity among Protestants and Parsees is believed by some to be relatively higher when compared to other religions and one can find the roots of such integrity in the well-ingrained mores of these religions. Nevertheless, it is only one point of view, as there are several other religious and secular groups, which are known for their high moral conduct. The cultural system of a country, including its religious orientation, appears to have played a significant role in influencing the work ethics of its people. For instance, the stress on hard work, so characteristic of the Protestant ethics, has helped several Christian societies to enhance their per capita 5 productivity. While Judaism has valued performance of physical labour by its followers, the Hindu and Islamic societies, on the other hand, have generally considered physical labour to be of lower rank than the mental work. Work ethics may or may not be linked with religious moorings. These are subjective issues but make for an interesting study. The family system and the educational system are influential instruments of socialisation and training of the mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the school have underscored honesty and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is likely to be highly positive and powerful. Legal-judicial Context The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical concerns in governance system. A neatly formulated law, with a clear stress on the norms of fair conduct and honesty, is likely to distinguish chaff from grain in the ethical universe. Conversely, nebulous laws, with confusing definition of corruption and its explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able to instill the fear of God or fear of law among those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society. Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality in public affairs. Conversely, a slow-moving judiciary, with a concern for letter rather than the spirit of the law, will dither and delay and even help the perpetrators of crimes by giving them leeway through prolonged trials and benefits of doubt. Likewise, the anti-corruption machinery of the government, with its tangled web of complex procedures, unintendedly grants relief to the accused who are indirectly assisted by dilatory and knotty procedures. In India, there is hardly any effective anticorruption institution. As we have read in Unit 7 earlier on in this Course, the Lok Pal is yet to be established, Lok Ayuktas are feeble and toothless agencies, while the state vigilance bodies are low-key actors. The consequences are too obvious to warrant any explanation. The Political Context The political leadership, whether in power or outside the power-domain, is perhaps the single most potent influence on the mores and values of citizens. The rulers do rule the minds, but in a democracy particularly, all political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the orientation and attitudes on moral questions. If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the administrative system cannot remain immune to the levels of political morality. The election system in India is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on the elections `compels’ a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means – more foul than fair. While fair has limits, foul has none. It is generally argued that the administrative class – comprising civil servants at higher, middle as well as lower levels – emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the mores, values and behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators. To expect that the administrators will be insulated from the orientations and norms evidenced the in society would be grossly unrealistic. The argument, propounded here, has a convincing logic, yet there can be a counterpoint that the rulers are expected to possess stronger moral fibre than the subjects. Since there are hardly any instrumentalities to protect and nurture administrative 6 morality vis-a-vis the general social morality, such an expectation remains at the most an elusive ideal. Hence, there is an obvious need to go deeper into the problem. The behaviour of politicians has a demonstration effect on civil servants. Besides, the capacity of the less honest political masters to control civil servants is immense. It is ironical that the moral environment in a country like India is designed more by its politicians than by any other social group. The primacy of the political over the rest of systems is too obvious to be ignored. If the media is objective and fearless, its role in preventing corruption can be effective. It can even act as a catalyst to the promotion of ethical behaviour among administrators. Hence, those who own and manage the media should understand their wider social and moral responsibilities. The trend in this direction is visible now with many television channels regularly airing their ‘expose’ on malpractices in the system. This role of the media is important if performed with intent of social responsibility rather than sensationalism. The Economic Context The level of economic development of a country is likely to have a positive correlation with the level of ethics in the governance system. Even when a causal relation between the two is not envisaged, a correlation cannot be ruled out. A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in the economic order, is likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more deprived sections of society may get tempted to forsake principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their basic needs of existence and security. Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford to be so), yet what is apprehended is that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity to compromise with the principles of integrity. It is interesting to note that with the advent of liberalising economic regime in developing nations, there is a growing concern about following the norms of integrity in industry, trade, management and the governance system on account of the international pressures for higher level of integrity in the WTO regime. This is what Fred Riggs would call `exogenous’ inducements to administrative change. 21. 5 ISSUE OF ETHICS: FOCI AND CONCERNS An important question arises in connection with the moral obligation of an administrative system. Is the administrative system confined to acting morally in its conduct or does it also share the responsibility of protecting and promoting an ethical order in the larger society? While most of the focus on administrative morality is on the aspect of probity within the administrative system, there is a need to consider the issue of the responsibility of the governance system (of which the administrative system is an integral part) to create and sustain an ethical ambience in the socioeconomic system that would nurture and protect the basic moral values. Moral political philosophy assumes that the rulers will not only be moral themselves, but would also be the guardians of morality in a society. Truly, being moral is a prerequisite to being a guardian of wider morality. Both the obligations are intertwined. It is a truism that the crux of administrative morality is ethical decision-making. The questions of facts and values cannot be separated from ethical decision-making. Thus, the science of administration gets integrated with the ethics of administration. And in this integrated regime, only that empirical concern is valued, which respects the normative concerns in the delivery of administrative services. 7 Which are the essential concerns in regard to administrative ethics? There can be a long list of values that are considered desirable in an administrative action. However, in being selective, one has to focus on the most crucial values. Let us now concentrate on the values of justice, fairness and objectivity. Woodrow Wilson, â€Å"The Study of Administration† (1887), in his inaugural address averred that justice was more important than sympathy. Thus, he placed justice at the top of value-hierarchy in a governance system. Paradoxically, there has been a lot of discussion on the formallegal aspects of administrative law since then, but very little analysis has been made of the philosophical dimension of administrative justice. The other two issues of ethical decision-making, viz. fairness and objectivity are, in fact, integral components of administrative justice. When administrators are true to their profession, they are expected to be impartial and fair and not get influenced by nepotism, favoritism and greed while making decisions of governance. Objectivity should not be misconstrued as a mechanical and rigid adherence to laws and rules. From the decision-making angle, it has undoubtedly wider ramifications encompassing a set of positive orientations. Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major realms of human existence. Let us attempt to outline certain salient aspects of ethics in public administration. Broadly, they could be summarised as following maxims: †¢ Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator will follow the law and rules that are framed to govern and guide various categories of policies and decisions. Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decision and actions. He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his discretion while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to be held accountable to higher authorities of governance and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions. Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with involvement, intelligence and dexterity. As Swami Vivekananda observed: â€Å"Every duty is holy and devotion to duty is the highest form of worship. † This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfillment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and constructively contribute to society. Maxim of Excellence: An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality in administrative decisions and action and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency. In a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites of Total Quality Management. Maxim of Fusion: An administrator would rationally bring about a fusion of individual, organisational and social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behaviour a commitment to such a fusion. In situation of conflicting goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made. Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator would respond effectively to the demands and challenges from the external as well as internal environment. He would adapt to environmental transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the prescribed ethical norms, the administrative system would show resilience and bounce back into the accepted ethical mould at the earliest opportunity. 8 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Maxim of Utilitarianism: While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number. Maxim of Compassion: An administrator, without violating the prescribed laws and rules, would demonstrate compassion for the poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness. Maxim of National Interest: Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while performing his duties, would keep in view the impact of his action on his nation’s strength and prestige. The Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including civil servants), while performing their official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered. Maxim of Justice: Those responsible for formulation and execution of policies and decisions of governance would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, impartiality and objectivity and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth. Maxim of Transparency: An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those affected by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were made. Maxim of Integrity: An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and not use his power, position and discretion to serve his personal interest and the illegitimate interests of other individuals or groups. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ There could be many more tenets added to the above catalogue of maxims of morality in administration. However, the overall objective is to ensure ‘Good Governance’ with a prime concern for ethical principles, practices, orientations and behaviour. There are no dogmas involved in defining administrative ethics. The chief concern while doing so is the positive consequence of administrative action and not just ostensibly rational modes of administrative processes. In the following Section, a few of the salient concerns and foci of ethics are being dealt with briefly. 21. 6 PERTINENCE OF CODE OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS. The concept of ethics has been a latecomer in the realm of public administration. For too long, doing one’s duty well was considered to be an equivalent of bureaucratic ethics. Interestingly, in the United States, the original city managers’ and federal code of ethics placed notable stress on efficiency as ethical concept. In the early 20th century, the perspective began to change. In 1924, the International City/Country Management Association adopted the public sector’s first code of ethics that reflected anti-corruption and anti-politics facets of the municipal reforms movement. 9. In 1958, the US Congress imposed a code of ethics on the Federal Government and in 1978, founded the Office of Government Ethics as an upshot of the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. In 1992, the Office of Government Ethics released the Federal Government’s first comprehensive set of standards of ethical conduct, comprising standards pertaining to gifts, conflicts of financial interest, impartiality, misuse of office, seeking outside employment, and outside activities. Almost all the American states have also promulgated their respective codes of ethics, though compared to the federal initiative, they are less comprehensive. Today, codes of ethics, ethics boards, and ethics training have been accepted as integral aspects of public administration in the U. S. Moreover, ethics education has also permeated the discipline of public administration. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Public Administration has made ethics education a required component of a Public Administration Programme for its accreditation and has prescribed that all introductory text-books in public administration should include a discussion on ethics (Browman, Berman and West, 2001). Eminent professional associations of public administration also offer training programmes on ethical conduct for public managers. In India, there are a few training programmes on administrative ethics offered by the Indian Institute of Public Administration and other institutions for civil servants, but there is hardly any similar initiative taken up in the realm of education in Public Administration. The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) had adopted in 1984 a Code of Ethics for its members (comprising intellectuals as well as practicing administrators). It was revised in 1994. Certain salient points of the ASPA’s Code of Ethics are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Exercise of discretionary authority to promote public interest Recognition and support to the public’s right to know the public business Exercise of compassion, benevolence, fairness and optimism Prevention of all forms of mismanagement of public funds by establishing and maintaining strong fiscal and management controls, by supporting audits and investigative activities Protection of Constitutional principles of equality, fairness, representativeness, responsiveness and due process in protecting citizens’ rights Maintenance of truthfulness and honesty and not to compromise them for advancement, honour, or personal gain Guarding zealously against conflict of interest or its appearance: e. g. nepotism, improper ou.